uCertify Articles » 220-603 http://www.ucertify.com/article Just another WordPress weblog Wed, 04 Nov 2009 00:00:00 +0000 http://wordpress.org/?v=2.8.4 en hourly 1 What are OSI and DoD models of network communications? http://www.ucertify.com/article/what-are-osi-and-dod-models-of-network-communications-2.html http://www.ucertify.com/article/what-are-osi-and-dod-models-of-network-communications-2.html#comments Sat, 31 Oct 2009 00:00:00 +0000 uCertify 1401102

The OSI Model

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model in 1977. The OSI model is a conceptual framework that can be used to get a better understanding of the complex interactions taking place among the various devices in a network. The purpose of the OSI model is to demonstrate how the network entities should work together for communication.

The OSI model organizes communication services into seven groups called layers. The layers are as follows:

  • Layer 1, The Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for packaging and transmitting data on the physical media. This layer conveys the bit stream through a network at the electrical and mechanical level.

  • Layer 2, The Data-Link Layer: The data-link layer is responsible for error free transfer of data frames. This layer provides synchronization for the physical layer.

  • Layer 3, The Network Layer: The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. It determines the physical path that data takes on the basis of network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. The network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets.

  • Layer 4, The Transport Layer: The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered in the order in which they are sent and that there is no loss or duplication. It ensures complete data transfer.

  • Layer 5, The Session Layer: The session layer establishes a communication session between processes running on different communication entities in a network and can support a message-mode data transfer. It deals with session and connection coordination.

  • Layer 6, The Presentation Layer: The presentation layer serves as the data translator for a network. It is usually a part of an operating system and converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another. This layer is also known as syntax layer.

  • Layer 7, The Application Layer: The application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network services. It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc. This layer is not an application in itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions.

Each communicating entity is equipped with these seven layers. When a message is sent between two communicating entities, data flows down through each layer in the sending entity and flows up through each layer in the receiving entity.

As the message travels down the sending entity layer stack, each layer it passes through (physical layer is an exception) adds a header. These headers contain pieces of control information that are read and processed by the corresponding layer on the receiving entity layer stack. As the message travels up the stack of the receiving entity, each layer strips the header added by its peer layer.

For example, two networked applications, based on Windows and Macintosh operating systems, are communicating with each other. At layer 7, the Windows application requests data from the Macintosh application. The request is sent to the Windows application’s layer 6. This layer receives the request as a data packet. It then adds some information, known as header, and passes the packet down to layer 5. The process continues until the request reaches the physical layer.

Note: Physical layer does not add a header.

The physical layer sends this request packet to the Macintosh application through the network transmission media. When the Macintosh application receives this packet, the header that was added at the data-link layer of Windows application is stripped at the data link layer of the Macintosh application. The Macintosh data-link layer performs the tasks requested in the header and passes the request packet to the next higher layer, i.e., the network layer. The process is repeated until the Macintosh application’s application layer receives the packet and interprets the request.

The DoD Model

The Department of Defense developed a four-layer reference model in 1970s for the DARPA Internetwork Project. DoD is a reference model that determines the way in which messages should be transmitted between any two-communication entities in a network. In DoD model, the two end points in a network are divided into layers. As data moves through the layers, header information is added (for transmission) or removed (for reception). The DoD model consists of the following four layers:

  • Layer 1, Network Interface Layer: The network interface layer is the lowest layer in the DoD model. This layer is responsible for putting frames on the wire and pulling frames off the wire. It is equivalent to the data-link and physical layers of the OSI model.

  • Layer 2, Internet Layer: The Internet layer provides three services – a connectionless delivery service , a mechanism to break data into individual packets or frames on the transmitting side and put them back together on the receiving side, and the routing functions necessary to interoperate with other networks. It is equivalent to the network layer of the OSI model.

  • Layer 3, Transport Layer: The transport layer provides communication sessions between connected computers. This layer is responsible for error detection and correction. It is also known as host-to-host or transmission layer and is equivalent to the transport layer of the OSI model.

  • Layer 4, Application Layer: The application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network services. Several standard TCP/IP utilities and services exist at the application layer. It is equivalent to the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model.

Comparison between the layers of the OSI and DoD models

The following figure compares the layers of the OSI model with the layers of the DoD model:

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Social engineering attacks are growing fast, and today majority of attackers use social engineering techniques to infiltrate into a victim’s network. It is very difficult for a technician to identify social engineering attacks, as these attacks do not involve any technical tools or any software-coding program. A social engineering hacker attempts to persuade users to provide information that will enable him to use their computers or computer resources. Many technicians think that such attacks are a cause of concern only for large organizations. It used to be the case earlier, but now hackers target all sectors.

Social engineering attacks succeed because they are allowed to succeed, i.e., in most cases the fraud could have been avoided if the victim had not provided the information that the hacker tried to extract. Getting information through social engineering methods is easier than making complicated code, and the information that a hacker gets through social engineering is correct and more reliable. To secure users from social engineering attacks as well as other attacks, you need to know what type of attacks they might fall victim to from social engineering hackers or any other Technical hacker. You should also try to find out what a hacker wants and calculate the possible loss to your organization. Accordingly, the security policy of the company should be reviewed and preventive measures should be taken. The changing must include educating your employees so that they can recognize the situations of social engineering and react swiftly. This helps others not to get affected by the same procedure or cheated by the same person again. The social engineering hacker might use various tricks to persuade his victim to reveal vital information. Depending upon the mental ability of the victim, he judges and applies his techniques while interacting with him.

The simplest way of social engineering hacking is to ask for the information directly from the victim. Seems easy? Yes it is. The only thing an attacker needs is presence of mind. A social engineering hacker can be anyone. Even your boss or manager can call you and ask for your login ID and Password, or it might be the technician who is offering you help. Users can also be attacked through fake e-mails, which might lead them to open a Web site designed to trick the recipients in giving important information such as usernames, passwords or addresses. This trick is also very popular with technical hackers, but instead of sending e-mails, they persuade victims to visit Web sites, which contain scripts that deploy Trojan virus or Key-loggers to the victims’ computers. Nowadays hackers also use mouse loggers and screen grabbers to obtain vital information. Organizations should take proper steps to educate their employees about different social engineering techniques.

Some other common types of attacks that hackers adopt are as follows:

Types of attacks

  • Back Door:
  • Spoofing:
  • Denial-of-Service (DoS):
  • Password Guessing Attack:
  • Replay Attack:

These days organizations have to upgrade their security to protect crucial information, and in the same way hackers are also developing more sophisticated techniques of attack. At the end of this article you have learnt about various social engineering techniques and steps to be taken to prevent such attacks from taking place.

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Task Manager is a utility that is used for managing applications, processes, and the general system performance and also for viewing the networking and user statistics. The Task Manager utility is used to run or end programs or applications. Administrators use this tool to quickly identify and terminate a rogue application.

This utility can be run by invoking a Windows Security menu by using the Ctrl+Alt+Del key combination and then clicking the Task Manager button or by right-clicking the task bar and then clicking the Task Manager menu option.

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The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) is a tool for managing group policies in Windows Server 2003. It provides administrators a single consolidated environment for working on group policy-related tasks. GPMC provides a single interface with drag-and-drop functionality to allow an administrator to manage group policy settings across multiple sites, domains, or even forests. GPMC is used to back up, restore, import, and copy group policy objects. It also provides a reporting interface on how group policy objects (GPOs) have been deployed.

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Partitions

A partition is a logical section of a hard disk drive. Creating a partition on a hard disk drive enables the hard disk drive to support separate file systems. Partitions can either be primary or extended. A hard disk drive can be divided into multiple logical partitions. However, it is recommended to have as few partitions as possible.

In DOS and Windows, a partition is referred to by a drive letter, such as C: or D:. As a rule, the operating system assigns the drive letter C: to the primary partition on the first hard disk drive, and then goes on to search for other primary partitions that may exist on the other hard disk drives. If the operating system finds more primary partitions on other disks, it first assigns the next drive letters in the series, to them. Then, the operating system goes on to assign letters to logical drives (in extended partitions) on each hard disk drive, continuing the series further. Drive letters A: and B: are reserved for floppy disk drives.

Types of Partitions: The following are the different types of partitions:

Active Partition: An active partition is one that is read at startup and is expected to have the necessary system files on it to boot the computer. If a partition is not set as Active, the computer will not boot from the hard disk drive. There can be only one active partition in one physical hard disk drive. Only the primary partition can be marked as an active partition.

System Partition: A system partition contains hardware-specific files used in loading and initializing the operating system. Only a primary partition can be used as a system partition. In Windows NT, system partition contains boot files namely NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM, and BOOT.INI. It may also contain the BOOTSECT.DOS and NTBOOTDD.SYS files.

Boot Partition: A boot partition contains operating system files and other support files needed by the operating system. It is also used to start the operating system. A primary partition or a logical drive in an extended partition can be used as a boot partition. Boot partition and system partition can be the same partition. In Windows NT, boot partition contains the operating system and NTOSKRNL.EXE.

Note: The system partition and the boot partition can be two different partitions, and can also be located on two different physical disks.

A partition is normally accomplished by running the FDISK program that comes with the operating systems. It is used to create, change, delete, or display current partitions on the hard disk. Each of the defined disk spaces (primary partition, extended partition or logical drive) is assigned a drive letter. After the hard disk is partitioned, it is formatted with a file system and the operating system is installed on it. These three procedures make a computer ready for use.

Caution! Using FDISK for removing or creating a partition on a hard disk drive destroys any data contained on that partition or on that part of the hard disk drive.

File Systems

In a computer, a file system refers to the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files on a disk or partition. It is the way in which files are named and logically placed for storage and retrieval. Most of the operating systems, such as Windows, UNIX, and Linux use file systems in which files are placed in a hierarchical (tree) structure. File systems also specify conventions for naming files, such as the maximum number of characters in a name, the characters that can be used, the length of a file name suffix etc. File systems include a format for specifying the path to a file through the structure of directories.

File systems supported by Windows: Windows operating systems support the following file systems:

FAT: The FAT or FAT16 file system is used to store data on a disk. The FAT file system is better suited for hard disk drives or partitions less than 200MB. It supports a single partition up to a maximum size of 2GB.

FAT32: The FAT32 file system is an enhancement of the FAT16 file system. FAT32 can support hard disk drives larger than 2GB (maximum 2TB) without having to use multiple partitions. It is more efficient as compared to 16-bit FAT on larger disks, as FAT32 decreases the cluster size on large hard disk drives, thereby reducing the amount of unused space.

NTFS: NTFS file system supports volumes up to 2EB. It supports compression on volumes, folders, and files.

The major characteristics of these files systems are as follows:

File Systems Supported By Long Filename Support File-level Security Support
File Allocation Table (FAT) DOS, Windows 9x/ME/NT/XP/2000 No No
File Allocation Table, 32 BIT (FAT32) Windows 95 OSR2/98/ME/XP/2000 Yes No
Windows NT File System (NTFS) Windows NT/XP/2000 Yes Yes

Advantages of FAT32 over FAT16

The benefits of using FAT32 file system over FAT16 include the following:

  • FAT32 is more efficient (sometimes 20-30 percent) than a 16-bit FAT on larger disks.

  • FAT32 can support larger than 2GB partitions. It supports drives of up to 2TB (terabytes) in size.

Advantages of NTFS file system over FAT file system

The benefits of using NTFS file system over FAT file system include the following:

  • NTFS is a transactional file system and can automatically recover from errors.
  • Access to files can be secured and files and folders can be encrypted.

  • Support for large hard disks, theoretically up to 2EB (Exabyte) and practically up to 2TB. The maximum drive size for NTFS is much larger than file allocation table (FAT).

Converting FAT16 file system to FAT32 file system

The CVT1.EXE utility converts a hard disk drive from FAT16 to FAT32.

The following points should be kept in mind before converting a hard disk drive from FAT16 to FAT32:

  • Once converted to FAT32, the hard disk drive cannot revert to FAT16.

  • A compressed drive cannot be converted.

  • Removable disks that have been formatted with FAT32 may not work with other operating systems.

  • Dual-boot to older operating systems will not be possible after a conversion to FAT32.

Converting FAT file system to NTFS file system

The CONVERT utility is used to convert a hard disk drive or partition formatted with the FAT file system to NTFS file system.

Syntax:

CONVERT <drive letter>: /fs:ntfs

Note: A hard disk drive formatted with NTFS file system cannot be reverted to FAT.

File-level permissions: File-level permissions allow administrators to set permissions to individual files. Only NTFS file system supports file-level permissions. When files are copied or moved from one location to another, the file permissions change as follows:

Source and Destination Copy Move
Within the same NTFS partition Files inherit permissions of the destination directory. Files keep permissions of the source directory.
Between different NTFS partitions Files inherit permissions of the destination directory. Files inherit permissions of the destination directory.
From NTFS partition to FAT partition Files lose all the permissions. Files lose all the permissions.
From FAT partition to NTFS partition Files inherit permissions of the destination directory. Files inherit permissions of the destination directory.
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A storage medium is an important part of a computer. Storage media contains data that are being accessed by users and is used to save data. It also saves files that a computer needs to operate. Storage devices and media come in different technologies, sizes, capacities, etc.

Following are the types of storage devices and media:

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Hard disk drive is used to store users’ data as well as operating system files. Data stored on it can be accessed quickly. Hard disk drive is generally installed inside the computer case. It can store large amount of data. It provides fast read/write performance. HDD can be connected to a computer by the Integrated Device Electronics (IDE), Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), and SATA interface. It consists of inflexible platters coated with material in which data is recorded magnetically with read/write heads.

Integrated Digital Electronics (IDE) is an interface primarily used to connect hard disk and CD Drives in a computer. The IDE-ATA specification provides support for four drives, using two connectors on the motherboard. IDE/ATA interface is best suited for personal computers where only one or two devices would be attached (one hard disk, and one CD Drive). It is reliable and cost effective. In large or medium size organizations where multiple devices are required to support a multi user environment, SCSI is a better alternative.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is a fast interface, primarily used for high performance workstations and servers. The devices attached to it communicate with each other independently, i.e., without CPU intervention. It can also connect external devices. It is commonly used to connect hard disk drives and CD drives. It is more expensive than IDE, but supports a multi-user environment.

Floppy Disk Drive and Floppy

Floppy disk drive is used to read/write data on a floppy disk. It is installed inside the computer case and connected to the computer motherboard using a floppy drive controller.

A floppy disk is a magnetic storage device. It has a thin magnetic film as a storage media, which is protected by a plastic cover. Earlier, floppy disks used to be of 5.25 inches square, but now most computers use floppy disks that are 3.5 inches square. The 5.25 inch floppy disk is obsolete now. It is a removable media. Therefore, users can transfer data from one computer to another using a floppy disk. The limitation with the floppy drive is that it cannot store large amount of data. A 5.25 inch floppy disk can store 1.2 MB of data, whereas a 3.5 inch floppy disk can store up to 2 MB of data.

CD Drive and CDs (Compact Discs)

CD drive is used for read/write operations on CDs. The CD drives that are capable of performing write operations on CDs are also known as CD burners. However, most of CD drives on computers have read only capability. CD drives with read-only capability is also known as CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) drives. A CD drive is installed inside the computer case and can be connected to IDE, SCSI, SATA, or firewire interface. CD drives come with different data transfer speeds. The first CD drive was introduced with a data transfer rate 150 Kbps. After 150 Kbps speed drive, the 2X speed CD drive with 300 Kbps of data transfer speed was introduced. Currently CD drives with up to 52X data transfer speed are available.

CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is a type of removable optical media. It can store up to 1GB of data, although most common CD-ROMs store 700MB of data. It comes in standard size and format, so users can load any type of CD-ROM into any CD drive or CD-ROM player. Once data is written on CD-ROM, it cannot be erased or changed. It is a popular media among hardware and software vendors to distribute software and applications.

CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a removable optical recordable disc. On this type of disk, data can be written only once, and cannot be deleted.

CD-RW (CD-ReWritable) is a removable optical recordable disc. In CD-RW, written information can be erased and new data can be recorded. CD-RW disk can be written only in a CD-RW recorder, not in a normal CD recorder drive However, a CD-RW recorder can also record standard CD-R disks.

DVD drive and Digital Video Disc (DVDs)

DVD drive is used for read/write operations on DVDs. The drives that are capable of performing write operations on DVDs are also known as DVD burners. There are many DVD burning technologies such as DVD+R, DVD+RW, etc.

DVD-ROM is a removable optical disc storage media. It is used for data storage, including movies with high quality audio and video. DVD-ROMs look same as CDs, their physical dimensions being the same, but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density. A DVD-ROM can store up to 4.3GB of data.

Tape Backup device

Tape backup device is used for taking backup of very large amount of data. It can be installed inside or outside a computer. It uses digital or analog magnetic tape medium to store data. It has slow read/write performance and is used for archival purposes. This technology is being obsolete, as optical disc media is used for this purpose.

MMC (MultiMediaCard)

The MultiMediaCard (MMC) is a flash memory memory card standard. MMC has the size of 24 mm x 32 mm x 1.5 mm. MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface, but new version cards allow transfers up to 8 bits at a time. MMC cards are used in mobiles and digital cameras. Now MMC cards are superseded by Secure Digital (SD) cards. However, MMC cards can be used in any device that supports SD cards. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, have SD slots that can read MMC cards.

Secure Digital (SD) cards

Pen drive

Pen drive is also known as USB flash drive. It is a small device used to transfer data from one computer to another using USB ports. Pen drives of various capacities, ranging from 32 MB to 1 GB, are available. When a pen drive is plugged into the USB port, Windows Explorer shows it as a removable drive. This interface allows users to copy data easily on the pen drive.

HD DVD

High Density DVD (HD DVD) is an optical disc format designed for the storage of large amount of data and high-definition video. This standard was jointly developed by a group of consumer electronics and PC companies, led by Toshiba. The HD DVD disc is an enhanced version of the DVD format so that it can accommodate high-definition video. It uses blue-violet laser that enables it to store more information in the same amount of physical space. It has a single-layer capacity of 15 GB and a dual-layer capacity of 30 GB. HD DVD discs can be played on standard DVD players.

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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol used for sending e-mail messages between servers. It is mostly used to send messages from a mail client such as Microsoft Outlook to a mail server. Most of the e-mail systems that send mails over the Internet use SMTP to send messages from one server to another. Due to its limitations in queuing messages at the receiving end, it is generally used with either the POP3 or IMAP protocol, which enables a user to save and download messages from the server.

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The network topology is the pattern in which the network medium is connected to the computers and other networking components. The following are the major topologies associated with local area networking:

  • Bus topology: Bus topology is a type of physical network design where all computers in the network are connected through a single coaxial cable known as a bus. This topology uses minimum cabling and is therefore the simplest and least expensive topology for small networks. In this topology, 50-ohm terminators terminate both ends of the network. A Bus topology network is difficult to troubleshoot, as a break or problem at any point along the cable can cause the entire network to go down.

  • Ring topology: Ring topology is a type of physical network design where all computers in the network are connected in a closed loop. Each computer or device in a Ring topology network acts as a repeater. It transmits data by passing a token around the network in order to prevent the collision of data between two computers that want to send messages at the same time. If a token is free, the computer waiting to send data takes it, attaches the data and destination address to the token, and sends it. When the token reaches its destination computer, the data is copied. Then, the token gets back to the originator. The originator finds that the message has been copied and received and removes the message from the token. Now, the token is free and can be used by the other computers in the network to send data. In this topology, if one computer fails, the entire network goes down.

  • Star topology:Star topology is a type of physical network design where each computer in the network is connected to a central device, called a hub, through an unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) wire. Signals from the sending computer go to the hub and are then transmitted to all the computers in the network. Since each workstation has a separate connection to the hub, it is easy to troubleshoot. Currently, it is the most popular topology used for networks.

  • Mesh topology: Mesh topology is a type of physical network design where all devices in a network are connected to each other with many redundant connections. It provides multiple paths for the data traveling on the network to reach its destination. Mesh topology also provides redundancy in the network. It employs the full mesh and partial mesh methods to connect devices. In a full mesh topology network, each computer is connected to all the other computers. In a partial mesh topology network, some of the computers are connected to all the computers, whereas some are connected to only those computers with which they frequently exchange data.

  • Wireless topology: Wireless topology is a type of physical network design where no cable is used as a network medium. The wireless topology eliminates the need for cables. A wireless LAN consists of a transceiver unit, called a wireless access point, that is connected to servers or directly to the network and other devices using a standard cabled network protocol, such as Ethernet or Token Ring. In the wireless network, client computers communicate with the network-attached transceivers by using their own transceivers. The most common wireless media are infrared light and radio waves.
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Task Manager is a utility that is used for managing applications, processes, and the general system performance and also for viewing the networking and user statistics. The Task Manager utility is used to run or end programs or applications. Administrators use this tool to quickly identify and terminate a rogue application.

This utility can be run by invoking a Windows Security menu by using the Ctrl+Alt+Del key combination and then clicking the Task Manager button or by right-clicking the task bar and then clicking the Task Manager menu option.

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The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) is a tool for managing group policies in Windows Server 2003. It provides administrators a single consolidated environment for working on group policy-related tasks. GPMC provides a single interface with drag-and-drop functionality to allow an administrator to manage group policy settings across multiple sites, domains, or even forests. GPMC is used to back up, restore, import, and copy group policy objects. It also provides a reporting interface on how group policy objects (GPOs) have been deployed.

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